Introduction
Arthur Miller’s “Death of a Salesman” is a seminal piece of American theater that delves into the complexities of family dynamics, the pursuit of the American Dream, and the harsh realities of life. This play, first performed in 1949, has become a cornerstone of modern drama and continues to resonate with audiences due to its timeless themes and relatable characters.
Background
Arthur Miller, an iconic American playwright, wrote “Death of a Salesman” in a period of profound social and economic change. The post-World War II era saw the rise of consumerism and the ideal of the American Dream, which promised prosperity and success to those who worked hard. However, Miller’s play critiques this ideal by portraying the life of Willy Loman, a salesman who struggles to achieve success and is ultimately crushed by the weight of his unfulfilled dreams.
Setting and Atmosphere
The play is set in late 1940s Brooklyn, New York, and spans a period of 24 hours, with flashbacks to earlier times in Willy Loman’s life. The Loman family home, once surrounded by open spaces, is now cramped by apartment buildings, symbolizing the encroachment of urbanization and the diminishing prospects for Willy’s success. The atmosphere is tense and filled with a sense of impending doom, reflecting Willy’s internal turmoil and the crumbling facade of his life.
Point of View and Narrative Voice
“Death of a Salesman” employs a third-person narrative perspective, allowing the audience to observe the unfolding events objectively. However, the narrative is deeply intertwined with Willy Loman’s subjective experiences, memories, and hallucinations. This blend of realism and expressionism provides insight into Willy’s psyche and underscores the disintegration of his mental state.
Tone and Mood
The tone of “Death of a Salesman” is somber and reflective, often tinged with desperation and melancholy. The mood fluctuates between moments of fleeting hope and overwhelming despair, mirroring the highs and lows of Willy’s journey. Miller’s use of language and dialogue enhances this emotional landscape, drawing the audience into the Loman family’s struggles.
Characters – Major and Minor
Major Characters
- Willy Loman: The protagonist, a 63-year-old salesman who is losing his grip on reality and is haunted by his perceived failures.
- Linda Loman: Willy’s loyal and supportive wife, who tries to keep the family together amidst growing tensions.
- Biff Loman: Willy and Linda’s elder son, who has not lived up to his father’s expectations and is searching for his own identity.
- Happy Loman: The younger son, who seeks validation through material success and women, often overshadowed by his brother Biff.
Minor Characters
- Charley: Willy’s neighbor and only friend, who offers him financial support and represents a pragmatic approach to life.
- Bernard: Charley’s son, whose academic and professional success contrasts sharply with Biff’s failures.
- Ben: Willy’s deceased brother, who appears in flashbacks and hallucinations, symbolizing the allure of quick wealth.
- The Woman: A figure from Willy’s past, representing his infidelity and the source of much of his guilt.
Plot Summary
“Death of a Salesman” follows the last 24 hours of Willy Loman’s life, interspersed with flashbacks to earlier events that reveal the reasons behind his current predicament. Willy, who is in a state of mental and emotional decline, has been taken off salary and works solely on commission, struggling to make ends meet. His strained relationship with his sons, particularly Biff, exacerbates his sense of failure.
Willy’s illusions of grandeur and success are shattered as he grapples with the reality of his life’s outcomes. He frequently retreats into memories of better times and conversations with his brother Ben, who represents the success Willy yearns for but never achieves. Linda, his steadfast wife, remains supportive but is increasingly worried about Willy’s mental state and their financial instability.
The arrival of Biff and Happy at home brings underlying tensions to the surface. Biff’s attempts to reconcile with his father are met with resistance, as Willy clings to his delusions of Biff’s potential. The play culminates in a confrontation during which Biff admits his failures and expresses his desire to break free from Willy’s expectations. This confrontation leads Willy to a moment of clarity, but also to a tragic decision.
In a final bid to secure his family’s future, Willy takes his own life, hoping that the insurance money will provide Biff with the financial means to succeed. The play ends with Willy’s funeral, attended only by his immediate family and Charley, reflecting the hollow nature of his dreams and the ultimate cost of his relentless pursuit of success.
Plot Structure
The plot of “Death of a Salesman” is structured around the present-day events of the last 24 hours of Willy Loman’s life, interwoven with flashbacks and hallucinations that provide context and depth to his character. The non-linear narrative reflects Willy’s fragmented mental state and offers a comprehensive view of his life’s trajectory and the choices that led to his downfall.
Summary (Acts and Scene wise)
Act 1
- Scene 1: Willy Loman returns home exhausted from a business trip, expressing his frustration with his job and his disappointment in his sons.
- Scene 2: Linda and Willy discuss their financial troubles and Willy’s deteriorating mental state. Biff and Happy talk about their plans and aspirations.
- Scene 3: Willy reminisces about better times when Biff was a high school football star, revealing his hopes and dreams for his son’s future.
- Scene 4: Charley offers Willy a job, but Willy’s pride prevents him from accepting. The scene shifts to a flashback of Willy’s infidelity.
- Scene 5: Willy’s hallucinations of his brother Ben and past conversations heighten his sense of failure and lost opportunities.
Act 2
- Scene 1: Willy decides to ask his boss, Howard, for a non-traveling job but is instead fired. He then meets Charley, who again offers financial help.
- Scene 2: Biff tries to secure a business loan but fails. He realizes and admits his own failures, leading to a confrontation with Willy.
- Scene 3: The confrontation escalates as Biff attempts to make Willy understand the futility of his dreams. Willy’s hallucinations intensify, reflecting his inner turmoil.
- Scene 4: In a final act of desperation, Willy decides to take his own life, believing the insurance money will provide Biff with a new start.
Themes
“Death of a Salesman” explores several profound themes:
- The American Dream: The play critiques the ideal of the American Dream, showing how its pursuit can lead to disillusionment and destruction.
- Reality vs. Illusion: Willy’s inability to distinguish between reality and his dreams leads to his downfall.
- Identity and Self-Worth: The characters struggle with their sense of identity and self-worth, particularly in relation to societal expectations and familial pressures.
- Betrayal and Abandonment: Willy feels betrayed by his own unrealized dreams and by Biff’s failure to live up to his expectations.
Symbols
- Seeds: Represent Willy’s desire to leave a tangible legacy and his failure to nurture his dreams into reality.
- The Rubber Hose: A symbol of Willy’s suicidal tendencies and his sense of entrapment.
- Ben: Represents the success that Willy yearns for but can never achieve.
Motifs
- Flashbacks: Highlight Willy’s deteriorating mental state and provide insight into his past decisions and their impact on the present.
- Hallucinations: Illustrate Willy’s inability to cope with reality and his retreat into a more comforting past.
- Salesmanship: Reflects the broader theme of the American Dream and the pressures of capitalist society.
Imagery
Miller uses vivid imagery to enhance the play’s emotional impact:
- Urban Encroachment: The Loman house surrounded by apartment buildings symbolizes Willy’s shrinking opportunities and growing sense of confinement.
- Light and Shadows: Used to reflect the characters’ emotional states and the shifting realities of Willy’s mind.
Literary Devices
Miller employs various literary devices to deepen the narrative:
- Irony: Willy’s belief in the American Dream is ironically the very thing that leads to his demise.
- Symbolism: Objects and characters are imbued with symbolic meaning to underscore the play’s themes.
- Foreshadowing: Early mentions of Willy’s suicidal tendencies hint at the play’s tragic conclusion.
Language and Style
Miller’s language is naturalistic and colloquial, reflecting the everyday speech of the characters. The dialogue is peppered with interruptions and unfinished thoughts, mirroring the characters’ emotional and mental states.
Genre and Form
“Death of a Salesman” is a tragedy that blends elements of realism and expressionism. It deviates from traditional tragic forms by focusing on the downfall of a common man rather than a noble figure, thus redefining the concept of tragedy in modern literature.
Historical and Cultural Context
The play was written in the context of post-World War II America, a time of economic growth and societal change. It critiques the era’s materialism and the unattainable ideals of the American Dream, reflecting the anxieties of a society grappling with new realities.
Literary Criticism
“Death of a Salesman” has been the subject of extensive literary criticism. Scholars have examined its themes of identity, reality, and the American Dream, as well as its innovative narrative structure and use of expressionistic techniques.
Author Studies
Arthur Miller’s body of work includes numerous plays that explore social issues and human dilemmas. His writing is characterized by a deep empathy for his characters and a critical eye on societal norms and injustices.
Adaptations
“Death of a Salesman” has been adapted into various film and television versions, with notable performances by actors such as Dustin Hoffman and Brian Dennehy. These adaptations have brought the play’s powerful themes to a wider audience.
Influence and Legacy
The play’s influence extends beyond the theater, impacting literature, film, and discussions about the American Dream. It remains a powerful critique of societal expectations and the human condition.
Critical Reception
“Death of a Salesman” was met with critical acclaim upon its release and has since been regarded as one of the greatest American plays. It won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama and the Tony Award for Best Play, cementing Miller’s reputation as a leading playwright.
Conclusion
“Death of a Salesman” is a poignant exploration of the human spirit, societal pressures, and the elusive nature of success. Arthur Miller’s masterful storytelling and deep understanding of human psychology make this play a timeless piece of literature that continues to resonate with audiences around the world.